C Interview Questions and Answers
What
is C language?
The
C programming language is a standardized programming language
developed
in the early 1970s by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie for
use
on the UNIX operating system. It has since spread to many other
operating
systems, and is one of the most widely used programming
languages.
C is prized for its efficiency, and is the most popular
programming
language for writing system software, though it is also
used
for writing applications.
printf() Function
What is the output of printf("%d")?
1.
When we write printf("%d",x); this means compiler will print the
value
of x. But as here, there is nothing after %d so compiler will show
in
output window garbage value.
2.
When we use %d the compiler internally uses it to access the
argument
in the stack (argument stack). Ideally compiler determines
the
offset of the data variable depending on the format specification
string.
Now when we write printf("%d",a) then compiler first accesses
the
top most element in the argument stack of the printf which is %d
and
depending on the format string it calculated to offset to the actual
data
variable in the memory which is to be printed. Now when only %d
will
be present in the printf then compiler will calculate the correct
offset
(which will be the offset to access the integer variable) but as
the
actual data object is to be printed is not present at that memory
location
so it will print what ever will be the contents of that memory
location.
3.
Some compilers check the format string and will generate an error
without
the proper number and type of arguments for things like
printf(...)
and scanf(...).
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malloc() Function- What is the difference between
"calloc(...)" and
"malloc(...)"?
1.
calloc(...) allocates a block of memory for an array of elements of a
certain
size. By default the block is initialized to 0. The total number of
memory
allocated will be (number_of_elements * size).
malloc(...)
takes in only a single argument which is the memory
required
in bytes. malloc(...) allocated bytes of memory and not blocks
of
memory like calloc(...).
2.
malloc(...) allocates memory blocks and returns a void pointer to the
allocated
space, or NULL if there is insufficient memory available.
calloc(...)
allocates an array in memory with elements initialized to 0
and
returns a pointer to the allocated space. calloc(...) calls malloc(...)
in
order to use the C++ _set_new_mode function to set the new
handler
mode.
printf() Function- What is the difference between
"printf(...)" and
"sprintf(...)"?
sprintf(...) writes data to the character array whereas
printf(...) writes data to the
standard output device.
Compilation How to reduce a final size of executable?
Size
of the final executable can be reduced using dynamic linking for
libraries.
Linked Lists -- Can you tell me how to check whether a linked list
is circular?
Create
two pointers, and set both to the start of the list. Update each
as
follows:
while
(pointer1) {
pointer1
= pointer1->next;
pointer2
= pointer2->next;
if
(pointer2) pointer2=pointer2->next;
if
(pointer1 == pointer2) {
print
("circular");
}}
If a
list is circular, at some point pointer2 will wrap around and be
either
at the item just before pointer1, or the item before that. Either
way,
its either 1 or 2 jumps until they meet.
"union" Data Type What is the output of the following
program? Why?
#include
main()
{
typedef
union {
int
a;
char
b[10];
float
c;
}
Union;
Union
x,y = {100};
x.a
= 50;
strcpy(x.b,"hello");
x.c
= 21.50;
printf("Union
x : %d %s %f n",x.a,x.b,x.c);
printf("Union
y : %d %s %f n",y.a,y.b,y.c);
}
What does static variable mean?
there
are 3 main uses for the static.
1.
If you declare within a function:
It
retains the value between function calls
2.If
it is declared for a function name:
By
default function is extern..so it will be visible from other files if the
function
declaration is as static..it is invisible for the outer files
3.
Static for global variables:
By
default we can use the global variables from outside files If it is
static
global..that variable is limited to with in the file
Advantages of a macro over a function?
Macro
gets to see the Compilation environment, so it can expand __
__TIME__
__FILE__ #defines. It is expanded by the preprocessor.
For
example, you can’t do this without macros
#define
PRINT(EXPR) printf( #EXPR “=%d\n”, EXPR)
PRINT(
5+6*7 ) // expands into printf(”5+6*7=%d”, 5+6*7 );
You
can define your mini language with macros:
#define
strequal(A,B) (!strcmp(A,B))
Macros
are a necessary evils of life. The purists don’t like them, but
without
it no real work gets done.
What are the differences between malloc() and calloc()?
There
are 2 differences.
First,
is in the number of arguments. malloc() takes a single
argument(memory
required in bytes), while calloc() needs 2
arguments(number
of variables to allocate memory, size in bytes of a
single
variable).
Secondly,
malloc() does not initialize the memory allocated, while
calloc()
initializes the allocated memory to ZERO.
What are the different storage classes in C?
C
has three types of storage: automatic, static and allocated.
Variable
having block scope and without static specifier have
automatic
storage duration.
Variables
with block scope, and with static specifier have static scope.
Global
variables (i.e, file scope) with or without the static specifier also
have
static scope.
Memory
obtained from calls to malloc(), alloc() or realloc() belongs to
allocated
storage class.
What is the difference between strings and character arrays?
A
major difference is: string will have static storage duration, whereas
as a
character array will not, unless it is explicity specified by using the
static
keyword.
Actually,
a string is a character array with following properties:
*
the multibyte character sequence, to which we generally call string,
is
used to initialize an array of static storage duration. The size of this
array
is just sufficient to contain these characters plus the terminating
NUL
character.
* it
not specified what happens if this array, i.e., string, is modified.
*
Two strings of same value[1] may share same memory area. For
example,
in the following declarations:
char
*s1 = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
char
*s2 = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
the
strings pointed by s1 and s2 may reside in the same memory
location.
But, it is not true for the following:
char
ca1[] = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
char
ca2[] = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
[1]
The value of a string is the sequence of the values of the contained
characters,
in order.
Difference between const char* p and char const* p
In
const char* p, the character pointed by ‘p’ is constant, so u cant
change
the value of character pointed by p but u can make ‘p’ refer to
some
other location.
in
char const* p, the ptr ‘p’ is constant not the character referenced by
it,
so u cant make ‘p’ to reference to any other location but u can
change
the value of the char pointed by ‘p’.
What is hashing?
To
hash means to grind up, and that’s essentially what hashing is all
about.
The heart of a hashing algorithm is a hash function that takes
your
nice, neat data and grinds it into some random-looking integer.
The
idea behind hashing is that some data either has no inherent
ordering
(such as images) or is expensive to compare (such as
images).
If the data has no inherent ordering, you can’t perform
comparison
searches.
If
the data is expensive to compare, the number of comparisons used
even
by a binary search might be too many. So instead of looking at
the
data themselves, you’ll condense (hash) the data to an integer (its
hash
value) and keep all the data with the same hash value in the
same
place. This task is carried out by using the hash value as an
index
into an array.
To
search for an item, you simply hash it and look at all the data whose
hash
values match that of the data you’re looking for. This technique
greatly
lessens the number of items you have to look at. If the
parameters
are set up with care and enough storage is available for
the
hash table, the number of comparisons needed to find an item can
be
made arbitrarily close to one.
One
aspect that affects the efficiency of a hashing implementation is
the
hash function itself. It should ideally distribute data randomly
throughout
the entire hash table, to reduce the likelihood of collisions.
Collisions
occur when two different keys have the same hash value.
There
are two ways to resolve this problem. In open addressing, the
collision
is resolved by the choosing of another position in the hash
table
for the element inserted later. When the hash table is searched, if
the
entry is not found at its hashed position in the table, the search
continues
checking until either the element is found or an empty
position
in the table is found.
The
second method of resolving a hash collision is called chaining. In
this
method, a bucket or linked list holds all the elements whose keys
hash
to the same value. When the hash table is searched, the list must
be
searched linearly.
How can you determine the size of an allocated portion of memory?
You
can’t, really. free() can , but there’s no way for your program to
know
the trick free() uses. Even if you disassemble the library and
discover
the trick, there’s no guarantee the trick won’t change with the
next
release of the compiler.
Can static variables be declared in a header file?
You
can’t declare a static variable without defining it as well (this is
because
the storage class modifiers static and extern are mutually
exclusive).
A static variable can be defined in a header file, but this
would
cause each source file that included the header file to have its
own
private copy of the variable, which is probably not what was
intended.
Can a variable be both const and volatile?
Yes.
The const modifier means that this code cannot change the value
of
the variable, but that does not mean that the value cannot be
changed
by means outside this code. For instance, in the example in
FAQ
8, the timer structure was accessed through a volatile const
pointer.
The function itself did not change the value of the timer, so it
was
declared const. However, the value was changed by hardware on
the
computer, so it was declared volatile. If a variable is both const and
volatile,
the two modifiers can appear in either order.
Can include files be nested?
Answers
Yes.
Include files can be nested any number of times. As long as you
use
precautionary measures , you can avoid including the same file
twice.
In the past, nesting header files was seen as bad programming
practice,
because it complicates the dependency tracking function of
the
MAKE program and thus slows down compilation. Many of today’s
popular
compilers make up for this difficulty by implementing a
concept
called precompiled headers, in which all headers and
associated
dependencies are stored in a precompiled state.
Many
programmers like to create a custom header file that has
#include
statements for every header needed for each module. This is
perfectly
acceptable and can help avoid potential problems relating to
#include
files, such as accidentally omitting an #include file in a
module.
When does the compiler not implicitly generate the address of the
first
element of an array?
Whenever
an array name appears in an expression such as
-
array as an operand of the sizeof operator
-
array as an operand of & operator
-
array as a string literal initializer for a character array
Then
the compiler does not implicitly generate the address of the
address
of the first element of an array.
What is a null pointer?
Page 8
There
are times when it’s necessary to have a pointer that doesn’t
point
to anything. The macro NULL, defined in , has a value that’s
guaranteed
to be different from any valid pointer. NULL is a literal zero,
possibly
cast to void* or char*. Some people, notably C++
programmers,
prefer to use 0 rather than NULL.
The
null pointer is used in three ways:
1)
To stop indirection in a recursive data structure
2)
As an error value
3)
As a sentinel value
What is the difference between text and binary modes?
Streams
can be classified into two types: text streams and binary
streams.
Text streams are interpreted, with a maximum length of 255
characters.
With text streams, carriage return/line feed combinations
are
translated to the newline n character and vice versa. Binary
streams
are uninterrupted and are treated one byte at a time with no
translation
of characters. Typically, a text stream would be used for
reading
and writing standard text files, printing output to the screen or
printer,
or receiving input from the keyboard.
A
binary text stream would typically be used for reading and writing
binary
files such as graphics or word processing documents, reading
mouse
input, or reading and writing to the modem.
What is static memory allocation and dynamic memory allocation?
Static
memory allocation: The compiler allocates the required memory
space
for a declared variable.By using the address of operator,the
reserved
address is obtained and this address may be assigned to a
pointer
variable.Since most of the declared variable have static
memory,this
way of assigning pointer value to a pointer variable is
known
as static memory allocation. memory is assigned during
compilation
time.
Dynamic
memory allocation: It uses functions such as malloc( ) or
calloc(
) to get memory dynamically.If these functions are used to get
memory
dynamically and the values returned by these functions are
assingned
to pointer variables, such assignments are known as
dynamic
memory allocation.memory is assined during run time.
When should a far pointer be used?
Sometimes
you can get away with using a small memory model in
most
of a given program. There might be just a few things that don’t fit
in
your small data and code segments. When that happens, you can
use
explicit far pointers and function declarations to get at the rest of
memory.
A far function can be outside the 64KB segment most
functions
are shoehorned into for a small-code model. (Often, libraries
are
declared explicitly far, so they’ll work no matter what code model
the
program uses.) A far pointer can refer to information outside the
64KB
data segment. Typically, such pointers are used with farmalloc()
and
such, to manage a heap separate from where all the rest of the
data
lives. If you use a small-data, large-code model, you should
explicitly
make your function pointers far.
How are pointer variables initialized?
Pointer
variable are initialized by one of the following two ways
-
Static memory allocation
-
Dynamic memory allocation
Difference between arrays and pointers?
-
Pointers are used to manipulate data using the address. Pointers use
*
operator to access the data pointed to by them
-
Arrays use subscripted variables to access and manipulate data.
Array
variables can be equivalently written using pointer expression.
Is using exit() the same as using return?
No.
The exit() function is used to exit your program and return control
to
the operating system. The return statement is used to return from a
function
and return control to the calling function. If you issue a return
from
the main() function, you are essentially returning control to the
calling
function, which is the operating system. In this case, the return
statement
and exit() function are similar.
What is a method?
Method
is a way of doing something, especially a systematic way;
implies
an orderly logical arrangement (usually in steps).
What is indirection?
If
you declare a variable, its name is a direct reference to its value. If
you
have a pointer to a variable, or any other object in memory, you
have
an indirect reference to its value.
What is modular programming?
If a
program is large, it is subdivided into a number of smaller
programs
that are called modules or subprograms. If a complex
problem
is solved using more modules, this approach is known as
modular
programming.
How many levels deep can include files be nested?
Even
though there is no limit to the number of levels of nested include
files
you can have, your compiler might run out of stack space while
trying
to include an inordinately high number of files. This number
varies
according to your hardware configuration and possibly your
compiler.
What is the difference between declaring a variable and defining a
variable?
Declaring
a variable means describing its type to the compiler but not
allocating
any space for it. Defining a variable means declaring it and
also
allocating space to hold the variable. You can also initialize a
variable
at the time it is defined.
What is an lvalue?
An
lvalue is an expression to which a value can be assigned. The lvalue
expression
is located on the left side of an assignment statement,
whereas
an rvalue is located on the right side of an assignment
statement.
Each assignment statement must have an lvalue and an
rvalue.
The lvalue expression must reference a storable variable in
memory.
It cannot be a constant.
Differentiate between an internal static and external static
variable?
An
internal static variable is declared inside a block with static storage
class
whereas an external static variable is declared outside all the
blocks
in a file.An internal static variable has persistent storage,block
scope
and no linkage.An external static variable has permanent
storage,file
scope and internal linkage.
What is the difference between a string and an array?
An
array is an array of anything. A string is a specific kind of an array
with
a well-known convention to determine its length.
There
are two kinds of programming languages: those in which a string
is
just an array of characters, and those in which it’s a special type. In
C, a
string is just an array of characters (type char), with one wrinkle: a
C
string always ends with a NUL character.
The “value”
of an array is the same as the address of (or a pointer to)
the
first element; so, frequently, a C string and a pointer to char are
used
to mean the same thing.
An
array can be any length. If it’s passed to a function, there’s no way
the
function can tell how long the array is supposed to be, unless some
convention
is used. The convention for strings is NUL termination; the
last
character is an ASCII NUL (‘’) character.
What is an argument? Differentiate between formal arguments and
actual
arguments?
An
argument is an entity used to pass the data from calling function to
the
called function. Formal arguments are the arguments available in
the
function definition. They are preceded by their own data types.
Actual
arguments are available in the function call.
What are advantages and disadvantages of external storage class?
Advantages
of external storage class
1)Persistent
storage of a variable retains the latest value
2)The
value is globally available
Disadvantages
of external storage class
1)The
storage for an external variable exists even when the variable is
not
needed
2)The
side effect may produce surprising output
3)Modification
of the program is difficult
4)Generality
of a program is affected
What is a void pointer?
A
void pointer is a C convention for a raw address. The compiler has no
idea
what type of object a void Pointer really points to. If you write
int
*ip;
ip
points to an int. If you write
void
*p;
p
doesn’t point to a void!
In C
and C++, any time you need a void pointer, you can use another
pointer
type. For example, if you have a char*, you can pass it to a
function
that expects a void*. You don’t even need to cast it. In C (but
not
in C++), you can use a void* any time you need any kind of
pointer,
without casting. (In C++, you need to cast it).
A
void pointer is used for working with raw memory or for passing a
pointer
to an unspecified type.
Some
C code operates on raw memory. When C was first invented,
character
pointers (char *) were used for that. Then people started
getting
confused about when a character pointer was a string, when it
was
a character array, and when it was raw memory.
When should a type cast not be used?
A
type cast should not be used to override a const or volatile
declaration.
Overriding these type modifiers can cause the program to
fail
to run correctly.
A
type cast should not be used to turn a pointer to one type of
structure
or data type into another. In the rare events in which this
action
is beneficial, using a union to hold the values makes the
programmer’s
intentions clearer.
When is a switch statement better than multiple if statements?
A
switch statement is generally best to use when you have more than
two
conditional expressions based on a single variable of numeric type.
What is a static function?
A
static function is a function whose scope is limited to the current
source
file. Scope refers to the visibility of a function or variable. If the
function
or variable is visible outside of the current source file, it is said
to
have global, or external, scope. If the function or variable is not
visible
outside of the current source file, it is said to have local, or
static,
scope.
What is a pointer variable?
A
pointer variable is a variable that may contain the address of another
variable
or any valid address in the memory.
What is a pointer value and address?
A
pointer value is a data object that refers to a memory location. Each
memory
location is numbered in the memory. The number attached to
a
memory location is called the address of the location.
What is a modulus operator? What are the restrictions of a modulus
operator?
A
Modulus operator gives the remainder value. The result of x%y is
obtained
by (x-(x/y)*y). This operator is applied only to integral
operands
and cannot be applied to float or double.
Differentiate between a linker and linkage?
A
linker converts an object code into an executable code by linking
together
the necessary build in functions. The form and place of
declaration
where the variable is declared in a program determine the
linkage
of variable.
What is a function and built-in function?
A
large program is subdivided into a number of smaller programs or
subprograms.
Each subprogram specifies one or more actions to be
performed
for a large program. such subprograms are functions.
The
function supports only static and extern storage classes. By
default,
function assumes extern storage class. functions have global
scope.
Only register or auto storage class is allowed in the function
Page 14
parameters.
Built-in functions that predefined and supplied along with
the
compiler are known as built-in functions. They are also known as
library
functions.
Why should I prototype a function?
A
function prototype tells the compiler what kind of arguments a
function
is looking to receive and what kind of return value a function
is
going to give back. This approach helps the compiler ensure that
calls
to a function are made correctly and that no erroneous type
conversions
are taking place.
What is Polymorphism ?
'Polymorphism'
is an object oriented term. Polymorphism may be
defined
as the ability of related objects to respond to the same
message
with different, but appropriate actions. In other words,
polymorphism
means taking more than one form. Polymorphism leads
to
two important aspects in Object Oriented terminology - Function
Overloading
and Function Overriding. Overloading is the practice of
supplying
more than one definition for a given function name in the
same
scope. The compiler is left to pick the appropriate version of the
function
or operator based on the arguments with which it is called.
Overriding
refers to the modifications made in the sub class to the
inherited
methods from the base class to change their behavior.
What is Operator overloading ?
When
an operator is overloaded, it takes on an additional meaning
relative
to a certain class. But it can still retain all of its old meanings.
Examples:
1)
The operators >> and << may be used for I/O operations because
in
the header, they are overloaded.
2)
In a stack class it is possible to overload the + operator so that it
appends
the contents of one stack to the contents of another. But the
+
operator still retains its original meaning relative to other types of
data.
What is the difference between goto and longjmp() and setjmp()?
A
goto statement implements a local jump of program execution, and
the
longjmp() and setjmp() functions implement a nonlocal, or far,
jump
of program execution.
Generally,
a jump in execution of any kind should be avoided because
it
is not considered good programming practice to use such statements
as
goto and longjmp in your program.
A
goto statement simply bypasses code in your program and jumps to
a
predefined position. To use the goto statement, you give it a labeled
position
to jump to. This predefined position must be within the same
function.
You cannot implement gotos between functions.
When
your program calls setjmp(), the current state of your program is
saved
in a structure of type jmp_buf. Later, your program can call the
longjmp()
function to restore the program’s state as it was when you
called
setjmp().Unlike the goto statement, the longjmp() and setjmp()
functions
do not need to be implemented in the same function.
However,
there is a major drawback to using these functions: your
program,
when restored to its previously saved state, will lose its
references
to any dynamically allocated memory between the
longjmp()
and the setjmp(). This means you will waste memory for
every
malloc() or calloc() you have implemented between your
longjmp()
and setjmp(), and your program will be horribly inefficient.
It
is highly recommended that you avoid using functions such as
longjmp()
and setjmp() because they, like the goto statement, are
quite
often an indication of poor programming practice.
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